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Science and Policy

• how to create a productive and respectful discussion composed of critical questioning and careful listening
  
• to focus, while explaining and listening, on important science information expressed by unifying concepts and processes in science of evidence, models, and explanations, as cited in the National Science Educational Standards
  
• to understand that by using the unifying concepts and processes, they can speak an international language of science in which they question assertions, ask for scientific evidence, and creatively and critically evaluate evidence by objective means such as statistics, empirical evidence, and historical facts
  
• controversy often accompanies the production of new scientific knowledge—but does not need to be disruptive, harmful, or hurtful. Legitimate scientific disagreement is respectful and fruitful. It centers on principles, methods, data, engagement with theory, and creative interpretations of these elements—not on personalities, or personal or institutional preferences.

1. As members of the public, their tax money funds government research. Political leaders must therefore be well informed if they are to be worthy stewards of the public's money and able to assure that society is served well by science.
   
2. As consumers in a marketplace, they can exert pressure on a research agenda through their purchasing decisions and/or investments in corporations and votes as shareholders.

"This myth is often manifested in the belief that there is a recipe-like stepwise procedure that typifies all scientific practice. This notion is erroneous: there is no single 'Scientific Method' that would guarantee the development of infallible knowledge. Scientists do observe, compare, measure, test, speculate, hypothesize, debate, create ideas and conceptual tools, and construct theories and explanations. However, there is no single sequence of (practical, conceptual, or logical) activities that will unerringly lead them to valid claims, let alone 'certain' knowledge." (Abd-El-Khalick, F. et al. 2008. p. 838.)

• Science Café, an appropriate class arrangement in which students can be at small "café" groupings of four students per table
  
• A timer (person or device) to keep students moving through all topic tables of Science Café
  
• Science and Policy student E-sheet
  
• Invention Pitch Sheet student sheet
  
• Science and Policy student sheet
  
• Your Turn: 2+2=Red student sheet
  
• Science and Policy teacher sheet
  
• 300 M&Ms, kernels of pop corn, or stones so each student has 10 items in his or her bank account
  
• Plain white paper (could be 8.5 x 11 inches, but larger drawing sheet is preferred)
  
• Markers, colored paper, or paints for making "Campaign Signs" in the Assessment

• This is a real hoax; that is, it was made to fool people. What's your general reaction to this clip? Are you tempted to believe it? Why or why not? Be specific about the evidence that tempts you to believe and that which repels you from believing this.
  (The educated tone and convincing delivery of the narrator are often cited as part of its credibility. What does that tell us about "masking" false information with acting ability? The visual filming style also is a familiar genre for the time, 1957—and even now, to a degree. It's a documentary, showing step by step the "natural cycle" of the seasons: flower to fruit to harvest—spaghetti—and the worthy farmers harvesting the crop.)
  
  
• How is the information presented in this video structured? The flower to fruit to harvested product?
  (It's a scientific form: a natural, biological process. By framing the fruiting "spaghetti trees" as a biological process, the film makers invoke the authority of science. They easily could have framed this as a ballet dance. They didn't because ballet dance does not have the same cultural authority in western countries as science. They are trying to persuade you by associating themselves with the powerhouse of science.)
  
  
• Why does science have power in our society? What about it is powerful?
  (Acquiring advanced scientific knowledge requires discipline and commitment. It is valuable because it is the basis for medical advances that keep us healthy and long-lived [germ theory and controlling contagion, anesthesia, antiseptic surgery, vaccinations, public health measures of clean drinking water, sanitary sewers, advanced cancer controls, minimally-invasive surgeries, new drugs]; for engineering feats that fuel discovery [space, deep sea explorations] and improve daily life [roads, bridges, dams]; for commerce [oil exploration, solar and wind energy]; for agriculture and the green revolution of pest-resistant crops and increased yields; for public enjoyment [forest management, freshwater management]. Because it is the evidence-based, rational underpinning of our modern lifestyle, science is highly prized.)
  
  
• What about the scene where the spaghetti is measured in length. What's the purpose of that scene?
  (It further invokes the cultural authority of science—through data that can be evaluated objectively. It can be measured to produce a number, and numbers can be compared in a way that leads to a clear conclusion. Either the numbers are the same or one is smaller and one is bigger. Either way, the answer is clear. This clarity is a much stronger form of evidence—longer spaghetti as expressed in inches or centimeters that can be compared to all spaghetti of all nations—than a subjective statement such as: "Swiss spaghetti is better." Science typically uses robust measures—that is, ways of achieving objective data that can be widely applied.)

• AAAS Contributes to Woodrow Wilson Center Report Regarding Science Advice for the Next U.S President
  
• Critical Upgrade

• Science and Technology in the 2008 Election
  
• Other Resources
  
• AAAS R&D Budget and Policy Program
  
• AAAS Center for Science, Technology and Congress
  
• Change.gov: Technology
  
• New Energy for America
  
• Barack Obama and Joe Biden’s Plan for Science and Innovation

• One is a mock debate in which students work in teams to prepare: one team for each science policy priority, plus another team to devise the questions.
  
• Another form it could take is it could be divided into issues and teams could take a theme and represent the Obama administration's views on those issues.
  
• Still another form is to create a "science café" room layout with three topic tables: one on embryonic stem cells; one on global warming; and one on water (evolution). Students will be assigned to these topics and divided into two groups/topics, and then sit at topic tables. Group 1 presents first, while Group 2 members listen, initiate discussion, restate the argument, reflect, ask for clarification and evidence, elaborate, evaluate evidence, and counter-propose for 10 minutes at a time. A designated timekeeper (teacher or student) will mark the end of 10 minutes, at which point the student with the birthday closest to January 1 of the current year moves to a new table and topic, where the group repeats the procedure for 10 minutes. At the end of this session, the student with the most cousins moves; at the end of the next 10 minutes, the person who can curl his or her tongue moves; or has the weirdest hobby; or the strangest food dislike [chocolate!], etc. When all groups of listeners have visited every table, the groups switch. The Group 2 members become presenters—and may choose other topics from the Web resources, such as presidential positions on science education, energy, or national security—while the other groups move table to table through the science café practicing scientific debate skills.

1. Give the class 10 minutes during which each student is to "invent" a scientific solution to a pressing scientific problem: it could be oil dependency; unsafe bridges; a shortage of roses at Valentine's Day—anything.
   
2. Students should fill out the Invention Pitch Sheet student sheet describing the invention.
   
3. Split the class into two groups: Buyers and Sellers. They'll take turns being each.
   
4. Give each student 10 tokens, M&Ms, or whatever the class currency is.
   
5. Line up the Buyers on one side of the room and Sellers on the other side with Buyers and Sellers in a 1:1 ratio.
   
6. Give each Seller 30 seconds to make his or her pitch for why the invention is so great and should be funded.
   
7. Give each Buyer 30 seconds to ask questions, decide a price, or decline funding.
   
8. Switch sides, so Buyers are now Sellers. (You can take a banking break here if you like, so all Sellers bank the money they made. That way each Seller starts with 10 tokens.)
   
9. Repeat until all students have been a Buyer and a Seller.
   
10. Count up the money; tally it on the board, and debrief by asking each student what kind of evidence he/she offered/listened to/was persuaded by. How did they price an offering? How did their expenditure help science? Society? An individual?

• Be an active listener, who is poised and alert to take in meaning without judging it emotionally. Listen to understand what the other person is saying—not to react.
  
• Argue your point in terms of scientific data, standardized methods, and accepted peer-reviewed principles.
  
• DO NOT argue a point on the basis of personalities, personal or emotional belief, or small samples and experiments that cannot be repeated.
  
• Ask for clarification, and restate the position to test your understanding. Use statements such as: "Please explain to me again how…" "Let's see if I understand (then summarize)." "Help me get this." "You say that X."
  
• Reflect, don’t react.
  
• Question results respectfully using questions such as: "What if…?" "Suppose that?" "If you were to do X, what might happen?"

Created :09/26/2008